Balance Sheet Accounts, Liabilities, and Equity

This part moves from broad reporting frameworks into the account-level areas that generate many of FAR’s most common measurement, classification, and disclosure traps. The sequence starts with liquid assets and ends with financing-side accounts so you can see how the balance sheet fits together.

In This Part

• Chapter 9: Cash and Cash Equivalents covers cash classification, reconciliation, controls, and disclosure.
• Chapter 10: Trade Receivables explains recognition, valuation, transfers, and presentation of receivables.
• Chapter 11: Inventory covers systems, cost flow assumptions, write-downs, estimation methods, and errors.
• Chapter 12: Property, Plant, and Equipment addresses capitalization, depreciation, impairment, AROs, and disposals.
• Chapter 13: Investments covers debt and equity investment accounting, CECL, and disclosure.
• Chapter 14: Intangible Assets explains amortization, impairment, goodwill, and internal-use software.
• Chapter 15: Payables and Accrued Liabilities covers operating liabilities, estimates, and presentation issues.
• Chapter 16: Debt and Financial Liabilities explains notes, bonds, amortization, covenant issues, and modifications.
• Chapter 17: Equity covers stock issuances, dividends, treasury stock, and equity presentation.

How to Use This Part

• Read this part in order when account-by-account FAR errors are costing you points.
• Slow down when a question changes only one fact that affects classification, valuation, or disclosure.
• Return here after practice sets to rebuild the statement logic behind cash, inventory, liabilities, and equity answers.

In this section

• Cash and Cash Equivalents Recognition, Reconciliation, and Disclosure
  FAR coverage for cash classification, petty cash, reconciliations, proof of cash, controls, and disclosure.
  • Cash Definitions, Classifications, and Petty Cash Procedures
    Learn the fundamentals of cash and cash equivalents classification, petty cash best practices, and borderline cases such as money market funds and short-term investments.
  • Bank Reconciliations, Proof of Cash, and Timing Differences
    A thorough examination of bank reconciliations, featuring step-by-step instructions, definitions of key terms, common pitfalls, and best practices to ensure accurate cash reporting. This guide also introduces the proof of cash method for enhanced internal controls and fraud detection.
  • Cash Controls and Cash-Related Disclosures
    Learn essential safeguards for cash management through robust internal controls, lockbox arrangements, segregation of duties, and disclosures for transparency in financial statements.
• Trade Receivables Recognition, Valuation, and Transfers
  FAR coverage for receivable recognition, allowance methods, transfer arrangements, and note disclosure.
  • Trade Receivable Recognition and Allowance Methods
    Explore the direct write-off vs. allowance methods for accounts receivable, learn how to estimate bad debts, and understand the interplay with revenue recognition.
  • Factoring, Assigning, and Pledging Trade Receivables
    Explore the complexities of factoring receivables with and without recourse, highlight risk retention, and understand how assignment or pledging impacts balance sheet classification and financial disclosures.
  • Trade Receivable Presentation and Disclosure Requirements
    Learn how to present net trade receivables on the balance sheet and prepare critical disclosures involving credit risk, allowance for doubtful accounts, and the nature of receivables.
• Inventory Systems, Cost Flow, and Valuation
  FAR coverage for inventory systems, cost-flow assumptions, estimation methods, write-down rules, and error effects.
  • Periodic and Perpetual Inventory Systems
    Discover the key differences between periodic and perpetual inventory systems, including journal entries, impacts on COGS, and best practices for effective inventory management.
  • Inventory Cost Flow Assumptions and Weighted-Average Methods
    Master Inventory Costing Methods for accurate financial statements: explore FIFO, LIFO, Weighted-Average, and Specific Identification.
  • Lower of Cost, Net Realizable Value, and Market Rules
    Master the essentials of applying lower of cost or net realizable value (LCNRV) and lower of cost or market (LCM) for inventory under both U.S. GAAP and IFRS. Learn key concepts, real-world examples, and critical differences to excel on the FAR CPA Exam.
  • Retail Inventory and Gross Profit Estimation Methods
    In-depth coverage of the Retail Inventory Method and the Gross Profit Method, featuring step-by-step calculations, real-world examples, and best practices for estimating inventory balances.
  • Inventory Errors, Cutoff Problems, and Adjustments
    Learn how to identify, correct, and prevent inventory misstatements using a 2-year approach and best-in-class accounting methodologies.
• Property, Plant, and Equipment from Acquisition to Disposal
  FAR coverage for capitalization, depreciation, depletion, impairment, AROs, and disposal accounting.
  • Property, Plant, and Equipment Acquisition and Capitalization
    Explore direct vs. indirect costs, interest capitalization, and the distinction between repairs and capital improvements for property, plant, and equipment assets.
  • Depreciation Methods and Depletion Calculations
    A comprehensive guide exploring Straight-Line, Double-Declining Balance, and Sum-of-the-Years’-Digits depreciation methods, plus depletion for natural resources. Includes formulas, partial-year examples, practical illustrations, visual diagrams, and best practices.
  • Repairs, Betterments, Replacements, and Other Subsequent Costs
    Learn the key principles and best practices surrounding capitalizing or expensing subsequent expenditures on Property, Plant, and Equipment assets, including major repairs, betterments, and replacements.
  • PP&E Impairment Testing and Asset Retirement Obligations
    Detailed guidance on the two-step and one-step impairment test frameworks under U.S. GAAP, accompanied by an in-depth look at measuring and recording ARO liabilities.
  • Assets Held for Sale and Disposal Accounting
    Comprehensive guidance on the classification, measurement, and cessation of depreciation for long-lived assets held for sale or disposal under U.S. GAAP and IFRS.
• Investment Classification, Measurement, and Disclosure
  FAR coverage for debt and equity investment classification, equity-method accounting, credit losses, and note disclosure.
  • Classifying Debt and Equity Investments Under U.S. GAAP
    Understand how FAR distinguishes debt securities from equity investments, including HTM, AFS debt, fair value categories, and the ASC 321 model for most equity holdings.
  • Equity Investments and the Equity Method
    Explore fair value through net income vs. equity method, significant influence thresholds, and best practices in accounting for equity investments.
  • Credit Losses and Impairment for Investment Securities
    Explore the comprehensive approaches under ASC 326 for debt securities and impairment considerations for equity securities, including credit loss models, IFRS comparisons, best practices, and illustrative examples.
  • Investment Disclosure Requirements
    Explore fair value hierarchy, realized vs. unrealized gains, concentration risks, and reclassification adjustments for investment disclosures under GAAP, including illustrative footnotes and best practices.
• Intangible Assets, Goodwill, and Software Costs
  FAR coverage for finite-lived and indefinite-lived intangibles, goodwill, impairment, and internal-use software.
  • Finite-Lived and Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets
    Explore the distinctions between finite-lived and indefinite-lived intangible assets, covering key accounting treatments including amortization and impairment testing, with practical examples and best practices.
  • Goodwill Recognition and Impairment Testing
    Explore goodwill recognition in business combinations under U.S. GAAP and IFRS, learn the qualitative vs. quantitative impairment testing methodologies, and understand key differences between the two frameworks.
  • Internal-Use Software Capitalization and Amortization
    Explore comprehensive guidelines for internal-use software accounting, covering the three critical stages—preliminary project stage, application development, and post-implementation. Learn when to capitalize costs, when to expense them, and how to handle subsequent amortization. Includes practical illustrations, best practices, pitfalls, and a quiz.
• Payables, Accruals, and Estimated Liabilities
  FAR coverage for operating payables, accrued liabilities, estimated obligations, AROs, and classification issues.
  • Accounts Payable, Accrued Liabilities, and Estimated Obligations
    A comprehensive guide to identifying, measuring, and accounting for short-term obligations such as accounts payable, accrued liabilities (including wages, utilities, and other operating expenses), and estimated liabilities under U.S. GAAP.
  • Asset Retirement Obligations, Exit Costs, and Disposal Obligations
    Comprehensive coverage of Asset Retirement Obligations (ARO) and exit or disposal obligations, focusing on initial recognition, discount rates, remeasurement triggers, and real-world applications.
  • Liability Classification and Presentation Considerations
    Discover the key principles and best practices for classifying short-term vs. long-term obligations, including refinancing considerations, interest rate disclosures, and maturity schedules.
• Debt Instruments, Carrying Value, and Restructuring Issues
  FAR coverage for notes, bonds, issuance costs, amortization, covenant issues, and debt modifications.
  • Notes, Bonds, and Debt Issuance Costs
    Explore the intricacies of notes payable, bonds payable, and debt issuance costs under U.S. GAAP—covering net vs. separate presentation, premium/discount amortization methods, and practical examples.
  • Debt Measurement, Discounts, Premiums, and Amortization
    Discover how to recognize, measure, and account for bonds issued at discounts or premiums, and master key amortization methods for effective debt management and CPA exam success.
  • Debt Covenant Breaches, Modifications, and Lender Concessions
    Understand how FAR handles covenant breaches, waiver timing, debt modifications versus extinguishments, and borrower-side concessionary restructurings.
• Equity Transactions, Distributions, and Presentation
  FAR coverage for stock issuance, treasury stock, dividends, splits, statement presentation, and advanced equity topics.
  • Stock Issuances and Treasury Stock Transactions
    Comprehensive coverage of par vs. no-par stock, repurchase methods (cost and par value), and the impact of treasury stock transactions on equity balances.
  • Dividends, Stock Dividends, and Stock Splits
    Learn the intricacies of accounting for dividends, including cash, property, and liquidating dividends, and understand the nuances of small vs. large stock dividends and stock splits.
  • Equity Presentation and Disclosure Requirements
    Explore comprehensive guidance on presenting shareholders’ equity, capital structure, dividends, and disclosure requirements. Learn how to effectively prepare the statement of changes in equity, address share-based considerations, and navigate both U.S. GAAP and IFRS implications for transparent and robust financial reporting.
  • Pushdown Accounting and Quasi Reorganizations
    Explore the advanced concepts of pushdown accounting and quasi reorganizations, focusing on the revaluation of assets and liabilities upon a pushdown event and the rarely used, yet crucial, quasi reorganization rules.